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Abstract
The emergence of feminism and the women's empowerment movement has brought to the 
mainstream the understanding that women have been oppressed and denied some 
fundamental basic rights in almost all societies. Factors that have contributed to 
discrimination against women include literal and fundamentalist interpretations of 
religious texts, the existence of patriarchy, stereotyped gender roles, lack of adequate 
women-to-women solidarity, etc. The phenomenon of discrimination against women is 
present in Urhoboland as in other societies. While some may claim what is done against 
women does not amount to discrimination, the fact remains that women are denied some 
rights because of their sex and identity as women. This paper argues that the values of 
Christian feminism should be applied to culture and society in Urhoboland. It shows that 
in light of patriarchy and other factors, Christian feminism will face challenges in its 
application in Urhoboland. Through critical analytic and hermeneutics methods the 
paper argues that the principles of Christian feminism should be used to critique Urhobo 
culture. The paper finds that there is a lack of gender equality in Urhoboland. It concludes 
that if the values of Christian feminism are applied in Urhoboland, it will help to create a 
more egalitarian society in Urhoboland.

Keywords: Christian, feminism, Urhobo, women, patriarchy. 

Introduction
The present writers are advocates of authentic forms of feminism. The current motivation 
to do this paper was spurred by the symposium organized by the Urhobo Historical 
Society (UHS), and Urhobo Studies Association, Delta State University, Abraka on “The 
Place of the Urhobo Women in the Emergence of Modern Urhobo Nation” held on 

thThursday, 12  October 2023 at UHS Headquarters, Okpara Inland in honour of late Dr 
(Mrs) Regina Otite.  The paper is also inspired by Otite (2021) who argues for the 
emancipation of women in her book, The Urhobo Woman. At that symposium, one of the 
present authors made a contribution remarking that most people attending the event are 
Christians and that people should read the bible from the perspective of Jesus Christ who 
stood for the worth and wellbeing of women, and that people should not pick passages 
from the bible and use them to subjugate women. The high point of Christianity is Christ 
and the Christian story must be read from Christ's perspective, not simply from a Pauline, 
Petrine, or any other perspective. Those who read the bible should read it from the 

THE CHALLENGE OF CHRISTIAN FEMINISM IN URHOBOLAND

Omorovie Ikeke
Department of Religious Studies and Philosophy,

Delta State University, Abraka
drikeke@delsu.edu.ng

&
Toma Brume

tomabrume@gmail.com

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perspective of Christ, the new lawgiver, and saviour of the human condition. The 
following statements from the Holy See (1994) that the gospels are the heart of the 
scriptures, that the Old Testament does contain matters that are imperfect and provisional, 
and that Christ is the center of God's plan should guide the reading and study of the bible. 
The Christian scriptures and traditions should never be used to support discrimination 
against women. 

The above is the pivot for this paper. From the dawn of human history till date, women 
have gravely suffered from being marginalized, suppressed, oppressed, sidelined, 
abused, and relegated to the background in many cultures and societies. In many cultures, 
it has been perceived that they are not to be heard, excluded from the council of elders, and 
are often blamed for the death of their husbands. They are often accused of infidelity when 
there is difficulty in child-bearing. Rousseau (1979) opined that women are created to 
meet the needs of men and don't deserve to be educated for any other purposes. Hegel 
(1991) saw men as dominant and women are to be restricted to the domestic and family 
arena. Aristotle (2012) wrote that women are inferior to men and men should rule over 
them.  The viewpoint that women are inferior, weak, to be subjugated, and even denied 
some basic rights predominate all through history. Space will not permit examining all the 
texts that deal with this. The focus here will be on the Judeo-Christian texts. While the 
Christian gospel and the Christ of the gospel preached and lived a liberating life that 
fosters the dignity and worth of women, there are many in the Judeo-Christian tradition 
who pick texts out of their so-cultural historical context to argue for the subjugation of 
women and deprivation of their fundamental human rights.

Unfortunately, the issue of women's pain and suffering arising from patriarchal beliefs 
and practices can also be found in Urhobo culture. What Kolawole (2013) writes of the 
expectation of women in traditional societies applies also to Urhobo culture,

 A woman's primary duty as from puberty was to wait for a suitor in 
marriage and produce a male heir for her husband. She was also expected 
to address her biological peculiarities such as menstruation, painful child 
labour, nurturing infants, and bearing menopause. Some of the features 
above even trigger a higher degree of discrimination or repression against 
her… (p.13).

While there are many good and liberating aspects that support the well-being of women in 
Urhobo culture, there are equally aspects that impede their rapid socio-cultural and 
politico-economic advancement. The concern of this paper is how to mitigate the aspects 
of the culture that impede women's progress. The paper will use critical hermeneutics, 
and analytic and sociological methods to examine the concerns of the paper. The 
procedure here will be to analyze the basic concepts and look at the socio-cultural 
situation of women in Urhobo culture and the demands of Christian feminism. The paper 
will also interrogate Christian feminism and bring it into dialogue with Urhobo tenets and 
practices on women. After this has been done, it will propose the way forward in 
upholding women's rights and progress. The paper will not examine forms of feminism 
nor give a history of feminism. It will suffice to focus on Christian feminism.  

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Analysis of Concepts
In order to understand Christian feminism, it is important to understand feminism. Ikeke 
(2021a) cites Johari: “… feminists are against the treatment of women as means of 
exchange, and they also argue against gender inequality and injustice. When it comes to 
the exercise of power and decision-making in society, women are often in a 
disadvantaged position” (p.2). Eastern Kentucky University (n.d) writes that: 

Feminism is an interdisciplinary approach to issues of equality and 
equity based on gender, gender expression, gender identity, sex, and 
sexuality as understood through social theories and political activism. 
Historically, feminism has evolved from the critical examination of 
inequality between the sexes to a more nuanced focus on the social and 
performative constructions of gender and sexuality (p.1). 

Feminism is about women overcoming all social, cultural, economic, political, religious, 
and ideological hindrances and obstacles that deny them their worth and dignity as human 
beings. Feminism in its pure essence is not a struggle or fight against men but against 
beliefs, ideologies, practices, and structures that deny them of their humanity and 
personhood. It is painful to note that there was a time in history when women were not 
allowed to vote, could not be elected into political positions, were deprived of formal 
education, and were denied playing football and other sports. There are still countries 
today where women are not allowed to drive a car or own land and are denied other basic 
rights. 

What then is Christian feminism? The term Christian relates to the beliefs and practices 
that came from the followers of Christ. It is in the Acts of the Apostles in the early church 
in Acts 11:26 that the followers of Christ were first called Christians. Today the term is 
inclusive of the religion that merged from his life and ministry (Christianity), the 
institutions and heritage that arise from that Christianity, etc.  Macy (2007) says that 
“Christianity can be understood as a family of faith traditions united in their monotheism 
and in their belief in the central role of Jesus of Nazareth in redemption” (p. 232). Heeren 
(2021) writes that Christian feminism which is a softer form of feminism advocates for 
the equality of women and men in the moral, social, spiritual, and leadership spheres 
calling for the recognition of the moral and spiritual abilities of women in society and in 
the church; and Christian feminists are also concerned about reproductive rights, women 
ordination and the need for use of gender-neutral pronouns in the bible. Christian 
feminism is feminism rooted in Christian beliefs and practices. It draws on the bible, the 
message of Christ, and other Christian sources to argue for the radical equality of women 
and men, affirm their worth and value and shun all forms of discrimination against 
women. What some women may perceive as discrimination can be subjected to debate, 
for instance, so-called reproductive rights. The rights of the unborn child to life should not 
be ignored. 

This paper is essentially concerned with the situation and plight of the Urhobo women in 
Urhoboland and beyond in the light of Christian feminism. It is imperative then to also 
define who is the Urhobo woman, and Urhoboland. Otite (2021) defines the Urhobo 

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woman as a woman whose father or mother is Urhobo and also possibly enculturated and 
socialized as such. A woman is an adult human being of the female sex.  The notion of 
who is an Urhobo woman should also include women from other ethnicities who are 
married to Urhobo men. The paper is concerned with the situation of Urhobo women 
whether in the ancestral homeland or in the diaspora. Often Urhobo women in the 
diaspora are also affected by the beliefs and practices coming from Urhoboland. For the 
avoidance of doubt, the Urhobo people are the largest ethnic group in Delta State in Niger. 
They live mainly in the western part of the Niger Delta. 

The Socio-Cultural Situation of Women in Urhoboland
What is the situation of the Urhobo woman and by extension other women who live in 
Urhoboland and beyond? The reality is that culture is dynamic. What is obtainable about 
the status of the Urhobo woman many years back may not necessarily be what is seen 
today. But by and large, there are many socio-cultural beliefs and practices regarding 
women that are still predominant in some places in Urhoboland today. Erhiurhoro (2020) 
writes that: “Gender inequality is a global social disorder, that is affecting many countries 
around the world today. This is most pronounced in African societies, including Nigeria 
and Urhobo land” (par. 1). In terms of beliefs, it is still generally held that women are 
subservient and should be subordinated to men almost in all spheres of life. In recent 
research conducted by this present writer regarding the role of elders in conflict resolution 
among Urhobo people of the Olomu kingdom, it was discovered that women's 
experiences and voices were generally not considered in decision-making in the 
governance of the communities as they are not among the council of elders. Their opinion 
was only sought, if need be, not statutorily. Women meet in their women's group where 
they settle disputes and make decisions that affect them, they don't meet jointly with men. 
It is a privilege for women to be invited to the men's council of elders. It is not a right. 

In terms of leadership, it is men who most often occupy leadership positions. There is the 
subtle belief that women are not as capable as men.  Erhiurhoro (2020) writes that the 
Urhobo people are patrilineal and so descent is traced along the male line; maternal 
children (emo-emete) are discriminated against, and none of the 24 Urhobo kingdoms is 
headed by a woman. From 1948 that the Urhobo Progress Union was founded only men 
have been presidents-general, all the presidents and chairmen of communities are men, a 
woman have not been made an Okpako-Orere, no woman can be considered Owara 
(family heir apparent, and women groups are secondary and must pay total allegiance to 
the men group. From research conducted in 2023 in Olomu kingdom, this researcher 
realized that no woman can be the spokesman of the town or community. A woman is not 
allowed to break kola nuts. Still on leadership, Erhiurhoro (2020) notes that since the 
creation of Delta State in 1991, no woman has been the governor, in the Local 
Government Areas in Urhoboland only one local government has had a woman as 
“chairman” and most of the positions at local, state and national levels are occupied by 
men. It is as if women are not capable enough to govern and lead. 

Another area in which Urhobo women have suffered from discrimination is in education. 
The girl-child is seen as another man's child. Some parents refuse to send their girl-child 

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to school claiming that after training her she will now be married and belong to another 
man; she will now answer another man's name. It is true that this situation has greatly 
changed. There are now many girl-children who are in schools both primary and 
secondary, and even university. But there are still parents who believe that there is no need 
to educate the girl-child. Onoriode (n.d) states that in times of financial difficulty in the 
family, it is the girl-child who is withdrawn from school for her male counterpart to 
continue and in places like Jesse, Mosogar, Oviri-Okpe, and Ovwori she is given into 
marriage.  Otite (2021) rightly notes: “The preferences given to boys are gradually 
changing as both boys and girls are now getting equally educated to render services and 
meet new needs of the parents, family, family, and community” (p. 8). 

Language and speech are other discriminatory ways that women have been subdued. 
Women in Urhoboland are described with various adjectives and terms that demean them. 
There is the notion of calling married women housewives (Ajeuweyin). This researcher 
has often queried that a house does not have a wife. Originally the term Ajeuweyin seemed 
to have been a sign of respect and a way of distinguishing a married woman from a single 
woman. But unfortunately, some now use it to mean that married women should be 
restricted to house chores and duties.  It is as if her only function is to take care of the 
house and breed children. When a woman is striving to enter into arenas like politics, 
social life, education, etc she is often reminded that she is a housewife, her chores are at 
home and her duty is to take care of the home. Nothing wrong with taking care of the 
home, but this should not be used to restrict women who are dexterous to enter politics and 
public life. One of the two present writers has also seen some Urhobo women calling their 
husbands, “Imasa.” This is a corruption of the word, “Master.” This concept of “Imasa” 
here has colonial undertones when people call the colonialists, colonial masters. From the 
biblical perspective, Jesus rightly affirmed that there is only one master and he is in 
heaven. Because of the limitation of human language even when words are used to 
designate positions to respect those positions, the paradigm of servant-leadership that 
Jesus established should never be forgotten. The husband is a servant-leader, not a Master 
or Lord. 

Women are allowed to be easily insulted and talked down by men but a woman dare not 
respond to her husband. The violence against women in Urhobo culture is horrific. The 
woman can be beaten and the man is not reprimanded rather the woman is blamed for 
infuriating the man. In Urhoboland a childless woman or a woman without male children 
is seen as a problem. This researcher has seen cases of people who even at the advanced 
age of 55 and above keep trying to get a male child no matter the risk to their lives. There 
are Urhobo men who beat their wives mercilessly and even when some men err, they 
never accept their faults. Some always see the women as at fault. All these create the idea 
that women are inferior and of lesser status. 

There are many other cultural practices that demean women such as female genital 
mutilation, abuse of childless women, etc. On the abuse of childless women, Ikeke 
(2021b) writes that: 

One of the major challenges confronting marriages and families in Africa 

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from the past to the present is the issue of barrenness or childlessness. 
Childlessness was often blamed on the woman, even though at times it may 
arise from the medical conditions of a man. African traditional culture had 
great value for children and childless marriage was seen as cursed and the 
woman in particular was even labelled a “man” or a witch. The woman is 
often verbally abused, and physical violence was meted on her. The 
marriage is often made unbearable and uncomfortable for the woman by 
the man

Despite the discrimination that women suffered in Urhobo culture, they were great 
contributors to the survival of the Urhobo nation and society. They were equally regarded 
to some degree in some spheres of life. Egbedi (2022) while noting that: “In Urhobo 
culture, men are naturally privileged through inheritance, the headship of their families 
and communities” (p. 29), nonetheless argues that women played prominent roles and 
these women include Chief Idiarhevwe (Oniemo of Ughelli), Princess Irivwidide of 
Ughelli Kingdom, Madam Udu, Orogun, Ovieya of Ughelli, Queen Ezezi of Okpe 
kingdom and Chief Janet Omotogor Ibru. While not disputing the role that these women 
and others would have played, the reality is that there are few exceptions to the general 
treatment of women in Urhoboland. Egbedi (2022) concludes her paper by asserting that: 
“Urhobo women should be given more opportunities to actualize their purpose in creation 
as complements and not subordinate to me” (p. 300).  A statement like that is a testimony 
to the fact that women are missing many opportunities to live out their authentic selves 
because of how they are generally treated. 

In order not to detract from the focus of this paper, the achievements of Urbobo women 
can be the concern of future research. Now what is said about the situation in Urhoboland 
is not static. Some communities and persons have transformed their beliefs and improved 
their practices more than others. There are persons who from their enlightened beliefs do 
not necessarily follow the customs of their localities that inhibit women. This fact is 
corroborated by Otite (2021) who opines that social changes are taking place in 
Urhoboland and that Urhobo needs to respond to modern needs. It is precisely to 
encourage more transformation for better treatment of women and for them to have more 
opportunities like their male counterparts that this paper is written. It is not written to 
condemn the Urhobo culture or men. It is written to critique structures and practices that 
limit women. 

Foundations for the Demands of Christian Feminism
The Christian story is rooted in the Judeo-Christian tradition coming from the biblical and 
ecclesial accounts. No Christian theology can be done without reading the bible and also 
looking at Christian history. With regard to the bible, it is important that though the bible 
is inspired by God, it also contains human actuality and reflects the cultures in which it 
was written. Human beings are sociological and cultural beings. They are influenced by 
their environment. Buchi (2020) argues that: 

The Bible did not invent patriarchy, but it only expresses the prevalent 
state of male dominance in those times. I mean, even though the Bible was 

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written by men on inspiration from God, male dominance was largely sold 
through that age's culture, which was highly patriarchal. If the Bible were 
to be rewritten in our time, there'd be a distinctive difference in traditional 
gender nuances, as we humans have evolved and women's inclusion in 
virtually every part of society is fast gaining a foothold (par. 2). 

The point is that it is going to the extreme and fundamentally fanatical to literally take all 
biblical passages without considering their situational historic origin and context and use 
them to promote beliefs and practices such as slavery, women subordination, racism, 
apartheid, sexism, etc. It may be true that there are black-and-white texts in the bible that 
indicate subordinating women and denying them their fundamental rights. These texts 
include 1 Corinthians 14:34-35 (women should keep silent in churches), 1 Timothy 2:11-
15 (women should have no authority over men, the woman was deceived and became a 
transgressor), and 1 Peter 3:7 (women as a weaker vessel). The fact is that the Judeo-
Christian scriptures should be read in the light of their entirety and especially in the light 
of the Christian gospel. The four gospels and the Christ event are the apex of Christian 
revelation. Whatever runs in conflict with the liberation and freedom teaching of Jesus 
Christ, the liberator of the human condition and life-giver should be re-imagined and 
apprised? Jesus, the new lawgiver and the one that is higher than Moses and all the 
prophets assuredly enunciated that what he teaches supersede some aspects of the Old 
Testament. He says: “You have heard that it was said, 'An eye for an eye and a tooth for a 
tooth.'  But I say to you, do not resist one who is evil. But if anyone strikes you on the right 
cheek, turn to him the other also;” (Matthew 5:38-39). Elsewhere he says: “You have 
heard that it was said, 'You shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy.' But I say to you, 
love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you” (Matthew 5: 43-44). Through 
his teaching and lifestyle, he revoked the law of revenge, retaliation, hatred for enemies, 
unforgiveness, etc. He pronounced to his disciples in the Sermon on the Mount that they 
were to show love, work for reconciliation, and be peacemakers. He associated with 
women publicly as you see in his welcoming of the Samaritan woman (John 4), affirming 
unconditional positive regard for the woman caught in the act of adultery (John 8), 
allowing a sinful woman to anoint him in public (Luke 7:36-50), being a friend to Mary 
Magdalen and even making her an “apostle to the apostles”, having close women 
disciples (Luke 8:1-3), having Mary and Martha as close women friends (Luke 10:38-42), 
and often staying over in their house at Bethany. Jesus saw women and men as ontological 
equals in personhood and dignity. He saw all as children of God and none should be 
discriminated against. In Jesus's fellowship in the gospels, all were welcomed including 
women. Jesus was not ashamed of dining with women at the table. Jesus in Luke 4:18-19 
proclaims his Jubilee manifesto of freedom to captives and freedom for all people, and all 
men and women. 

The radical and revolutionary life of Jesus should be the model and paradigm for 
Christian belief and practice. The reality is that Jesus existed before Christianity and 
before the church. If there is any Christian or Church practice that conflicts with the 
message of Christ, Christ must take precedence. Passages before Christ came on earth, 
and passages that came after his life on earth such as in the letters of Paul and in the other 

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epistles of the New Testament that indicate or inspire anti-women values should be re-
read and appropriately critiqued. Odoyoye (2007) writes that:

 It is true that there is much violence in the Bible. See the often re-hearse 
'texts of terror' against women. But read against the example of Jesus, none 
of these can be said to be divine dictates for us to follow today. Christians 
have held on to the 'square-rib'myth of the making of a woman and used its 
disempowering interpretations to do untold violence to the humanity of 
women. They have savoured and swallowed the forbidden apple myth of the 
origin of sin and disobedience in human nature (p. 8).

Preachers who teach male domination over women often quote Sarah calling Abraham, 
lord. From this, they argue that husbands are to lord it over their wives who must submit. 
These preachers often misunderstand the principle of biblical submission that should be 
mutual. They also often forget that Jesus' model of lordship is servant-leadership (Luke 
22:24-27). Writing of the revolutionary ministry of Jesus and how he was counter-
cultural, Alabi (2012) writes that:

In His ministry Jesus lifted the status of women from master-slave trend of 
the society to 'each other' or 'one another' relationship. There are 
instances that the first set of people who received His healing benefits was 
women. For example, Peter's mother-in law was healed of her severe fever 
and Syro-Phoenician woman's daughter. Some women received their dead 
back like Jairus' daughter; exorcism was carried out on women and 
healing like Mary Magdalene (Lk. 8:1-3). A disgraceful hemorrhage of a 
woman was cured after she had spent all her blessings on it to earthly men 
(Mk. 5:25ff). Women could touch Jesus for healing; He was not too sacred 
to be touched by women and ate with them unlike the Rabbis of His day 
who accused Him of eating with a sinner. A woman could anoint Him and 
massage His body with her air. He set a woman caught in adultery free 
while others thought of stoning her to death (Jn. 8:11ff). he received 
monetary gifts from women (Lk. 8:3) and could enter their houses and 
teach them the word of God like the case of Martha and Mary. When others 
doubted women, Jesus trusted them and He revealed Himself to them first 
after His resurrection. Provision was made to cater for His mother even 
while on the cross dying just as women cared for Him from Galilee to 
Jerusalem while He was facing trial and during crucifixion (Mt. 27:55-
56). The absence of women among the twelve apostles was not 
discrimination but a matter of providence after all, women were among 
the 120 disciples who received the baptism of Holy Spirit on the day of 
Pentecost (Acts 1:12-14;2:1-4) (pp.366-367).

Paul (1988) writes thus: 
In all of Jesus' teaching, as well as in his behaviour, one can find nothing 
which reflects the discrimination against women prevalent in his day. On 
the contrary, his words and works always express the respect and honour 
due to women. The woman with a stoop is called a 'daughter of Abraham' 

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(Lk 13:16), while in the whole Bible the title 'son of Abraham' is used only 
of men. Walking the Via Dolorosa to Golgotha, Jesus will say to the 
women: 'Daughters of Jerusalem, do not weep for me' (Lk 23:28). This 
way of speaking to and about women, as well as his manner of treating 
them, clearly constitutes an 'innovation' with respect to the prevailing 
custom at that time (sec. 13).

The Pauline household code in Ephesians 5:21-23 is frequently misappropriated to 
subdue women. Okure (2007) writes that the Ephesian household code is based on 
unredeemed culture and instead of interpreting it in the light of Christ's message of 
freedom, it has been canonized to mean absolute obedience of women to men and when 
there is a failure in marriage the woman is blamed for not subjecting herself in all things 
ignoring the fact that absolute subjection dehumanizes the humanity of the woman. 
Absolute subjection for a Christian woman should be to Christ, not her husband. It should 
be understood that subjection is not domination. Okure (2007) notes that subjection has 
been used to demand women to submit to inhuman treatment from men and other 
discriminating practices.  In terms of leadership, there were many officeholders in 
Judaism and the Christian era who played prominent roles such as Jael who killed Sisera, 
army commander of Canaan (Judges 4:21), Miriam prophetess, singer, and composer 
(Exodus 15:20-21), Huldah the prophetess (2 Chronicles 34:22–28), Anna the prophetess 
(Luke 2:36-38), Deborah (Judges 4 and 5). There were women as financiers of the 
ministry of Jesus and the apostle Paul. These women financiers and philanthropists are 
Lydia, Dorcas, Mary, Nympha (Acts 9:36-42, Col 4:15, Acts 12:12, Acts 16:13-15). The 
New Testament passage of Galatians 3:28 affirms the equality of women and men. In 
Romans 16:3-5, St Paul mentions many women who were partners with him in ministry. 
Alabi (2012) notes that: 

The New Testament apostolic writings make the greatest provision for 
women by commanding men to love their wives. In Torah, love is the 
greatest commandment and this is directed to women as recipients. The 
regulation of submission on the part of women is to reciprocate the love 
of their husbands and not of a slave to a master relationship. The Peter's 
admonition hinges the answers of the husbands from God to their stand 
to their wives (1Peter 3:1ff) (p. 367). 

The Holy Spirit, as Jaja (2007) notes, is poured equally on both men and women on 
Pentecost day. Borg and Crossan (2009) have written that the radical visionary message 
of the first Paul, the original Paul in the New Testament must be recovered. This Paul 
according to them saw all men and women and all people as one in Christ, no division, no 
slaves. This Paul they also say is different from the conservative Paul who teaches the 
subjugation of women to men and sees women as the weaker sex. 

Outside the life of Christ, there are many passages in the Bible, in both the Old and New 
Testaments that endorse the empowerment of women and reveal that men and women are 
equal. The Bible is absolutely clear that both women and men are created in God's image 
and likeness (Genesis 1:26-28). It is both of them that are saddled with the responsibility 
of being stewards of God's creation. The point that needs to be affirmed clearly is that it is 

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to Christ in his teaching and example that people should look to and not take bible texts 
out of context. 

Christian Feminism and Urhobo Culture  
Every human being carries experience, a lived experience for that matter. They are also 
carriers of knowledge and beliefs. Every human being has a voice. Every experience and 
voice matters. However, it should be subjected to critical evaluation in the light of human 
rights and the quest for justice. The experience and voices of women should count. To 
deprive women of a place in the public square and leadership meetings is to miss out on 
important voices and experiences that can enrich the conversation. This is why for 
instance it is fundamentally wrong that almost all over Africa, councils of elders lack a 
woman's voice and experience. It is often explained away that the women have their own 
meetings and when they are needed, they are invited to the meeting of elders. This should 
not be so. It should be a statutory right of women to be in the elders' council. It is through 
the elder's council that important decisions about the governance of the community or 
town take place. The apostle Paul's admonition that women should keep silent should be 
read within its proper context and subjected to the ministry of Jesus. 
Even in the Christian story women's voices have been marginalized for most of the time. 
The point made by Ursic (2021) is helpful here:

For over 2,000 years, Christian theologians have been primarily men 
writing from men's perspectives and experiences. In the 1960s, women 
began to study to become theologians when the women's rights 
movement opened doors to higher education for women. Beginning in 
the 1970s and 1980s, female theologians developed Christian feminist 
theology with a focus on women's perspectives and experiences. 
Christian feminist theology seeks to empower women through their 
Christian faith and supports the equality of women and men based on 
Christian scripture. 'There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer 
slave or free, there is no longer male and female; for all of you are one 
in Christ Jesus' (Galatians 3:28). The arts have an important role in 
Christian feminist theology because a significant way Christians learn 
about their faith is through the arts, and Christians engage the arts in 
the practice of their faith (p.1).

There has been great advancement in the inclusion of women's voices in society. But more 
still needs to be done. The emergence of feminism and Christian feminism should be an 
inspiration to women in Urhoboland particularly Urhobo women to press into being 
educationally advanced. They should make their voices heard. There is a need for more 
women theologians, religious studies scholars, and philosophers and feminist scholars in 
Urhoboland.  To say that women's experiences and voice in Urhoboland have been silent 
does not mean their experiences and voices is totally silent. The challenge is that in the 
major areas of life where their voices and experiences should be taken into cognizance, 
they seem to be missing in action. It may not be any fault of theirs but the way society has 
been structured. Otite (2021) writes about Urhobo women thus:

With their failure of lack of strong will to resist their subordinate status and 

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role, women help to elect more men than women to the Senate, the House of 
Representatives, State Houses of Assembly, and even the Local Government 
Councils in Nigeria. They learn to depend on men for the relatively few 
appointive positions they hold in society. Their low population in the 
National and State Assemblies, etc., and in political parties, as well as their 
tacit endorsement of the notion that a woman's place is in the home, the 
domestic domain, are part of the demonstration of their apparently 
involuntary acceptance of traditional gender-biased made-controlled 
culture (p. xix)

The Christian scriptures should be interpreted in a liberating manner in Urhoboland for 
the emancipation of Urhobo women. Christian feminism is not about fighting against 
men. Some persons wrongly misunderstand Christian feminism to be fighting against 
men and so once they hear of Christian feminism their mind denies it. Christian feminism 
should be about the deconstruction of patriarchal socio-cultural beliefs, policies, and 
practices that make women unfree, limit their aspirations, and strangulate their 
personhood. Christian feminism is about asserting the ontological equality of women and 
men and indeed all people and the implication and import for ethical practices and social 
living. Men and women in Urhoboland should be able to play any gender roles that are not 
biologically innate in the sexes for the well-being of society. A great many gender roles 
are based on socio-cultural perceptions. When a woman is pregnant for instance, a man 
should be able to do the domestic chores. Many men in Urhoboland consider this a taboo. 
They will force their 8-month pregnant woman that she must do all the domestic chores. 
In the gospel, Jesus is presented as cooking breakfast and sharing with his disciples. 
Painfully religion, including the Christian religion, has been used by some as an 
instrument to foster discrimination against women in the name of fidelity to the text.

The fact is that most of the things and functions that women are deprived of performing 
are not divine and have no supernatural origin. They come from gender stereotypes of 
seeing women as the weaker sex and even “inferior” persons. That it has been practiced 
like that from time immemorial or it comes from the ancestors does not mean it should not 
be transformed to meet the dynamics of a changing society. To use the argument, it is the 
way it has been done and it should not change is fallacious. Beliefs and practices like 
slavery, human sacrifice, etc may have been practiced by the ancestors but today in the 
light of greater knowledge and ethical development they are now seen as evil and have 
been eradicated in most places. 

Christian feminism should be an inspiration for Urhobo women to be motivated to strive 
for greater leadership roles in their communities and politics. As noted, there are many 
leadership roles that women are deprived of in Urhoboland simply because they are 
women. The structural beliefs that hold women down should be deconstructed. Women 
can be spokeswomen for the entire community and not just their women's group. 
communities. We need women as president-generals of various communities. In 
Urhoboland they need to strive for more elective offices. 

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In Urhoboland, Christian feminism should not be seen as an enemy of the land. Christian 
feminism is not a divider of families as some see it. It is not struggling for the dominance 
of women over men. It is not a fight against men. There are different roles to be played in 
both family and community in Urhoboland. Christian feminism does not teach that all 
men and women in Urhoboland should play the same roles. Men and women complement 
one another. They should live in mutual respect for one another. Marriage is about a 
partnership of life. Men and women are to collaboratively make decisions and live life 
together. It is not a question of one sex dominating the other. Many women and men are 
Christians in Urhoboland. They hear what their priests, pastors, and other ministers say to 
them in churches. An anti-feminist interpretation of scripture can make people hostile to 
women's rights and empowerment. There are preachers who teach subservience, slavery, 
and domestication in the name of family harmony. They wrongly interpret the bible to 
make women seem inferior. This ought not to be so. 

. 
The Way Forward 
There are many ways to foster the demands of Christian feminism and authentic feminism 
in Urhoboland. One such way is a critical re-examination of the biblical texts and all 
religious texts in general. This re-examination can be done at seminars, conferences, 
symposia, debates, etc. The goal is to appropriate rightly the texts that further women's 
empowerment. Religious texts should not be swallowed hook, line, and sinker. They must 
be read within their particular historicity and cultural milieu. Oduyoye (2007) rightly 
opines that: “…the…transformation of negative attitudes towards women would come 
only as the whole community of women and men became open to re-examining faith-
based discrimination against women and cultural provisions for downgrading the 
humanity of women” (p.1). 

There seems to be a fear of change. Those who exercise power fear losing their power. 
They love things to be done the way they are. Oduyoye (2007) writing regarding this fear 
implies that there should be courage in facing ourselves and critiquing ourselves. The 
human mind is very powerful. Mentalities need to be transformed. This is where 
education has a great role to play. There are hundreds of declarations regarding the worth 
and dignity of women but many women and men are not aware of them. Even many in 
politics are not aware of them. How many persons in Urhoboland know of the Maputo 
Protocol of the African Union (2003), Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination 
against Women of the United Nations (1967), Convention on the Elimination of All 
Forms of Discrimination against Women of the United Nations (1979), Declaration on the 
Elimination of Violence against Women (1993).  Ikeke (2021c) writes: 

Despite the many international human rights declarations affirming the 
equality of men and women, and the techno-scientific accomplishments of 
humanity, in many non-Western societies and indigenous cultures there is 
still much discrimination against women. The discrimination and 
violence against women on the basis of their sex and their being perceived 
as subservient to men by some cultures, societies and persons are morally 
unacceptable. Discrimination and violence against women are wrong for 
they offend against the ontological status of women as human beings; 

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violate their human dignity/ rights as persons (p. 125).

There is a need more than ever before to spread the knowledge of these declarations. 
Knowledge can make a difference. The place of re-education and raising of 
consciousness on the women's issue should never be neglected. Speaking of how women 
have suffered in society Penha (2011) writes that: “It is therefore necessary that the 
process of conscientizing society with regard to various issues of discrimination and 
violence to women be accelerated. This is best done by various methods of adult 
education. One important way is personal reflection and grappling with our doubts and 
questions. Group interaction and discussion facilitate adult study” (p.8). In relation to the 
issue of re-education, there is need for more girl-child education in Urhoboland. 
Omogbemi, Adedoyin and Oladepo (2010) are on target to note that girl child education is 
a tool for national development and through its women's skills and talents can be tapped 
for the good of society. 

The Christian church in Urhoboland can do more to ensure that women's rights are fully 
recognized as human rights and that more spaces in the church are created for women to 
exercise their gifts and talents. And finally, on the way forward sister solidarity should not 
be neglected by women. It is often said that women are their own worst enemies. The 
church has an enormous role to play in education. But it should be a radical and new 
education that is attentive to the issues of feminism. It will not be right to deny the fact that 
women have suffered from various forms of marginalization in Urhoboland and other 
societies. In relation to education also, people should be educated in their use of language. 
Language should be used to empower women and not demean them. Ehiakhamen (2001) 
notes that language should be liberated from negative and derogatory manner it has been 
used to put down women. 

There is a need for law and social policy to be reconstructed. Still, all over Africa and 
Urhoboland, there are still many men who will never accept that women are equal to men 
and that the role of men is not to dominate women. Unless there are radical affirmative 
laws and the attendant social policy that regulates societies and creatively provides spaces 
for women there will continue to be gender imbalance. It is not enough to say that women 
should struggle and strive to be on par with men. Evwierhoma (2014) writes that the law 
should be used as an instrument of change to transform women's situation by enacting that 
women are well-consulted in making social policies, and laws should be made that can 
mainstream women to come to the mainstream. There are political parties in Nigeria that 
have apportioned a certain percentage of positions to women. More needs to be done in 
this regard. Using the instrument of law here is not an advocacy for unhealthy forms of 
unjust affirmative actions. The instrument of law should be used in a democratic manner 
for the well-being of all, and should never foster incompetency of anyone whether man or 
woman. 

One fundamental question that was raised above is the question of leadership. Because of 
the open or overt biases against women, you find very few of them in leadership positions 
in society, politics, and the church. When there are women who strive to be leaders, they 

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The Challenge Of Christian Feminism In Urhoboland      -    Omorovie Ikeke & Toma Brume



are often reminded that they need to take care of their homes and leave the domain of 
leadership especially in politics and in the church to men. It should be clear that women 
have responsibilities in the home does not mean they cannot be leaders in the public 
space. After all, in the biblical tradition, Deborah served as both wife, judge, and military 
commander in Israel in the days of the judges. Ojo (2007) has noted that the presence of 
prominent women in the bible amidst a patriarchal culture shows that women have 
leadership gifts and these gifts should be recognized in churches in Nigeria. 

On the way forward, there is an equal need for sister-to-sister or woman-to-woman 
alliances. Very often women tend to simply rely on men to give them power or leadership 
positions. This is not enough. Women need to do more meetings and confer among 
themselves. Especially in this part of the world, like Urhoboland that this paper is 
concerned women rarely meet to discuss women of their empowerment to overcome the 
problems caused by patriarchy. They take it for granted as if things will change 
themselves. Abdulkadir (2003) writes that: “…women must unite and form alliances with 
other feminist movements in the world in order to conquer the buccaneering dragon of 
their continual oppression” (p. 24). 

Conclusion
This paper has examined the socio-cultural situation of Urhobo women in Urhoboland in 
light of the challenges posed by Christian feminism. It showed that like in other societies 
and cultures, women have also experienced patriarchal domination. The paper showed 
that the bible has often been misread to subjugate women. It argued for a re-imagination 
of better appreciation of the biblical texts and to recover those texts that inspired 
recognition of women as equal members of society and their being accorded their rights. 
It then proposed ways that the values of feminism can be used to foster women's 
empowerment in Urhoboland and beyond such as positive re-appropriation of biblical 
text, re-education and conscientization for authentic feminist values, enacted of laws and 
policies that affirm women's lives and dignity, overcoming fear of sharing power with 
women, etc. If these things are done, they will help to create a more peaceful and 
harmonious Urhobo society.

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